Dna Synopsis

DNA, RNA, PROTEINS STARTS WITH ? Name _______________________________ 1. DNA that is spread out in the nucleus of a non-dividing cell so it can be read is called _C_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ . 2. The group of 3 nitrogen bases in the mRNA message that is read together is called a _C_ __ __ __ __. 3. In dividing cells, the DNA is scrunched into _C_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ so it can be moved. 4. The mRNA message tells the ribosomes which _A_ __ __ __ __ _A_ __ __ __ to put in next when it makes a _P_ __ __ __ __ __ __. 5. Adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil are all _N_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ _B_ __ __ __ __. . Chromosomes are made when DNA wraps around _H_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ to make bead-like structures called _N_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __. 7. M_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ RNA is copied from DNA in the _N_ __ __ __ __ __ __, edited, and transferred to _R_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ in the cytoplasm to be translated into a protein 8. The process of making a DNA copy is cal led _R_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __. 9. _N_ __ __ __ __ __ __ _A_ __ __ __ __ (like DNA and RNA) are made by joining _N_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ subunits together in a chain. 10. T_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ RNA has an _A_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ region that matches the codon on an m-RNA message. 11. The process of making an RNA message from DNA is called _T_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ and it happens in the _N_ __ __ __ __ __ __. 12. _R_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ RNA is made by the _N_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ and joins with _P_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ to make ribosomes. 13. Another name for protein synthesis is _T_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __. 14. _R_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ molecules attach to the _O_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ to turn off the lac operon when _L_ __ __ __ __ __ __ is NOT present. 5. _H_ __ __ genes are found in EUKARYOTIC cells and control growth and differentiation in developing embryos. 16. _S_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ are chromosomal mutations in whic h one nitrogen base replaces another in the gene code. 17. _F_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ mutations that happen at the beginning of the code are more harmful than those at the end because they change more of the message. 18. Small pieces of code called _I_ __ __ __ __ __ __ are cut out of the RNA message before it is read; while _E_ __ __ __ __ stay in the message and are expressed. 9. 3n or 4n plants with _P_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ are bigger and stronger, but humans with this condition don’t survive. 20. _T_ __ __ __ boxes help position the _R_ __ __ _P_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ enzyme. 21. _U_ __ __ __ __ __ is the nitrogen base NOT found in _D_ __ __ and _T_ __ __ __ __ __ __ is the nitrogen base NOT found in _R_ __ __. 22. Nitrogen bases made with _O_ __ __ ring are called _P_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ and nitrogen bases made with _T_ __ __ rings are called _P_ __ __ __ __ __ __. 23.In prokaryotic cells, a group of genes that work together is called an _O_ __ _ _ __ __ __. 24. James _W_ __ __ __ __ __ and Francis _C_ __ __ __ __ are the scientists who used Rosalind _F_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __’s X-ray images to figure out that DNA is shaped like a â€Å"twisted ladder† with _P_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ and _S_ __ __ __ __ __ forming the sides of the ladder, _N_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ bases forming the rungs, and _H_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ bonds acting as â€Å"glue† to hold the two sides together. (OVER) 25. I_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ are mutations in which a piece of code breaks, flips, and reattaches backwards; while _T_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ move a piece of DNA to another non-homologous chromosome. 26. In _G_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __’s mice-pneumonia experiment, lethal bacteria passed genetic material to harmless bacteria in a process called _T_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __. 27. According to _C_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __‘s rules when making DNA, _A_ __ __ __ __ __ __ always bonds with _T_ __ __ __ __ __ __ and _C_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ always bonds with _G_ __ __ __ __ __ __. 8. Viruses that infect bacteria (like the one used in _H_ __ __ __ __ __ __- _C_ __ __ __ __ ‘s blender experiment which proved DNA was the genetic material) are called _B_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __. 29. _T_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ are sequences of DNA that can jump from one location to another and are thought to be involved in increasing mutations in cells; they are sometimes called â€Å"_J_ __ __ __ __ __† genes. 30. A DNA molecule is said to be _A_ __ __ __- _P_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ because the two complementary strands run in opposite directions.

God’s Existence and Aquinas Objection Essay

I was in the debate team in high school. And there were times that our team would take the against side of the statement. In his famous work Prologion, written in 1077-1078, Anselm presents the idea the God exists because God is the greatest thing of all, that the idea of thinking of God exists prove its existence. Hundred of years later, Thomas Aquinas brings up the account that addresses Anselm’s idea in objection 2 of Question II, First Article of Summa Theologica. Aquinas objects Anselm’s argument later in his work by attacking the idea that God is something that can be thought greater. To understand Anselm’s argument for God’s existence, one must first understand the principles that forms the argument. The first principle is the claim that â€Å"nothing greater can be thought. † There is too types of existing, existing in understanding (existing0) and existing in reality (existing1). Then, we try to think of something is existing1. Anselm let â€Å"something† be â€Å"something than which nothing greater can be thought (NGT),† or in another word â€Å"a being than which nothing greater can be conceived† according to the Proslogion. The very first act of thinking that something is existing1 serves as the basis of it existing0. Because in the process of trying to think of something greater, we already establish its existence0. For example, there is a flower A, existing1. This flower A is the most beautiful flower, that this flower is a NGT. In order to prove this flower is NGT, one has to think of all the flower he has seen, flower B, C, or D. In the process of searching through one’s mind trying to think of a flower that is more beautiful than flower A, flower A already exists in one’s mind, which is existing0. To open his argument, Anselm then said an example of NGT is God. The second principle is the principle of â€Å"thinking of non-existing objects (Principle E). † Anselm uses the example of a painter conceiving the drawing he will paint, then executing his plan in mind to make the painting exists in reality. To breakdown his argument, let’s begin with something that exists0. Because one has the ability to imagine that something exists0, one can also imagine that the same thing exists1. This priniciple is the most uncontroversial because it is just a matter of imagination. The fact that one has imagination allows him to imagine whatever he wants. For example, one imagines he won the lottery and has a million dollars. It is safe to say that one can proceed to think of that million dollars is existing1, regardless of if the million dollars truly exists1. Applying Principle E back to the argument of NGT, if one can imagine NGT in existence0, one can also go ahead and imagine NGT existing1. The third principle is â€Å"thinking something greater than something (Principle G). This principle compares the greatness of existing0 and existing1. Anselm proposes that â€Å"greatness† has two faces: qualitatively and existentially. To further support his argument, Anselm implies that greatness qualitatively means everything positive, such as, more beautiful, more knowledgeable, more influential, etc. Base on this assumption, Anselm argues that, â€Å"Suppose it exists in the understanding alone: then it can be conceived to exist in reality; which is greater. † To apply this principle in daily life, one can relate to a million dollars example above. One can imagine having a million dollars in his mind, but that million dollars doesn’t exist1. In another case, one owns a millions dollars, which means that million dollars exists1. The rhetorical question here will be, which case is more appealing to you, which scenario is â€Å"greater? † Back to Anselm’s claim, the â€Å"it† in his argument is, of course, NGT, which is God. That God exists1 is better than God only exists0 but not exists1. The next principle returns to the basic meaning of NGT. Principle N presents the idea â€Å"if something can be thought to be greater than x, then x is not an NGT. † Assume something is an NGT, nothing greater can be thought. If there is another thing that is greater then it. This â€Å"something† is no longer an NGT. This principle is pretty self-explanatory. To put it in everyday examples, imagine the beautiful flower A is the most beautiful flower in the whole wide world. However, one found another flower more beautiful than A. Now A is no longer an NGT, regardless in existence0 or existence1. Now substitute God in for NGT in the equation. Because Anselm already claimed that God is an NGT, if one can think of something greater than God, God is no longer an NGT. According to the Proslogion, â€Å"God cannot be conceived not to exist. –God is that, than which nothing greater can be conceived. –That which can be conceived not to exist is not God. † The upcoming principle’s idea bases that of principle E. Principle T simply proposes the idea that â€Å"an NGT can be thought. † Because one has the ability to think of an object either exists0, exists1, or even both, one can also think of NGT existing0, existing1, or both. The idea that one can think of something is very broad and universal, that â€Å"something† can simply be anything. The final piece of Anselm’s argument is Principle M. This principle presents the very vague idea that â€Å"if something must be thought as existing1, then it exists1. † If one must think of a flower exists1, then that flower does exist1. Now that all principles Anselm needed to support his argument that God exists are gathered, he begins his argument with a â€Å"fool (thinker)† that â€Å"understands [God] is in his understanding; although he does not understand it to exist. † To fully understand this argument, one has to accept Anselm’s assumption that God, indeed, is an NGT. The argument that the thinker has the ability to think of NGT existing1 is based on Principle E that if one can think of an object then he can think of it existing1. The idea of thinking NGT exists1 is â€Å"greater† than the idea of thinking NGT exists0 but doesn’t exist1 (Principle G); therefore, one can think of something greater than the NGT that exists0 but not in reality. However, this violates the basic meaning of an NGT (Principle N), nothing greater can be thought. So the idea that one can think of something greater than the NGT that exists0 but not in reality is contradictory to the fundamental element of an NGT. Which comes to the agreement that if one think of an NGT it is to be existing1. The conclusion implies the principle that one can thought of NGT exists1 (Principle T). Also, one can and must only think of an NGT exists1. This lead to the final conclusion. If one has no choice but think of something exists1, that something must be existing1 (Principle M). Therefore, an NGT, God, exists. Aquinas gives an condensed version account of Anselm’s argument in Summa Theologica. In objection 2 of question II, â€Å"Whether the existence of God is self-evident? †, Aquinas addresses the idea much abruptly. He first implies that Anselm’s idea of God is an NGT is equivalent to saying â€Å"things are said to be self-evident which are known as soon as the terms are known,† that the significant of the word â€Å"God† is nothing better can be conceived. He follows the account by stating that the word â€Å"God† â€Å"exists actually and mentally is greater than that which exists only mentally. † Therefore, if the word â€Å"God† is understood mentally it has to be understood to exist actually. Both Anselm’s argument of Aquinas’s account of it come to the same conclusion that God exists, that the thought of it existing lead to its real existence. Aquinas objects Anselm’s idea by stating that not everyone understands the word â€Å"God† will agree that it is an NGT. He follows his objection by stating: Yet, granted that everyone understands that by this name God is signified something than which nothing greater can be thought, nevertheless, it does not therefore follow that he understands that what the name signifies exists actually, but only that it exists mentally. Aquinas’s main objection is that the idea of NGT can be interpreted that it can only exists mentally. However, for Anselm’s argument to work, one has to understand that God can exists in reality; therefore, Aquinas further objects Anselm’s claim by stating those â€Å"who hold God does not exist† will not admit the fact that God is an NGT and it exists in reality. In Anselm’s defense, he based all his argument on the fact that God is â€Å"a being than which nothing greater can be conceived. † As a true believer of God, Anselm would have simply oppose those who does not believe in God has not fully understand the meaning of â€Å"God†; therefore, they fail to grasp the idea God exists in reality. If one understands God, he will be able to think of God’s existence in mind then agree to think of it in reality. After reading excerpts both from the Proslogion and the Summa Theologica, I am more inclined to support Aquinas’s claim. Although I do not think Aquinas has successfully destroyed Anselm’s argument, I think there are more weak links in Anselm’s argument than that of Aquinas’s. The most apparent loopholes are Principle M and Principle G. First, Principle M states that if one has to think of something as existing1, then that something has to exists1. However, Anselm neglects the fact that what one believes exists1 does not has to be true. For example, children were told to believe Santa Claus exists in reality and many of them do believe that idea. The contradiction being what those children â€Å"can and must† think exists1, Santa Claus, does not exists1. Second, the positivity of â€Å"greatness† implied in Principle G is too vague. The concept of greatness of reality is â€Å"better† than that of in mind can be subjective. Just because one person thinks the existence in reality is greater than existence in mind does not equal others perception of greatness. With doubts in Principle M and Principle G, I think Aquinas has a stronger position compare to Anselm does.

MACRO Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

MACRO - Essay Example It will also considered about the various issues and challenges related to economic growth, unemployment, inflation, and the balance of payment and the exchange rate Economic growth is often defined as the increase in the market value to the quantity of goods and services produced by the economy over the period of time. Economic growth can be measured in terms of the increase in the per capita gross domestic product (GDP) (The Saylor Foundation, 2014). Accordingly, the GDP growth rate of the UK has been identified to demonstrate constant fluctuation. The UK economy is ascertained to face with strong headwinds and challenges. Contextually, the sluggish progress of the global economy along with uncertainty related to euro zone is identified to generate considerable headwinds for the nation’s economy. Output of the economy has remained flat for the last two years demonstrating 3% lower than it was at peak. Besides, private consumption is identified to restrain particularly due to reducing real disposable income, precautionary saving, tight access to credit and deleveraging. Likewise, private investment is also ascertained to be suffering fro m declining demand for goods and services, increased uncertainty and rigid financial conditions. The sluggish growth experienced by the trading partners particularly in Europe has eroded the hopes of quick recovery from the challenges faced by the economy. Declining non-price competitiveness and the limited market share held by the UK in the emerging markets of the world has also hampered the rate of export growth. Notably, high household debt, alongside limited access to mortgages is reckoned to have continuous impact on the residential investment (Wehinger, 2011). According to Office for Budget Responsibility (OBR), GDP growth rate of the economy is expected to be raised by 2.7 % in the year 2014. The OBR has warned about the prediction

Short answer in Law question in essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Short answer in Law question in - Essay Example 47). The element of intention is very necessary and essential of any contract to be valid. For the legality of the intention to hold then it may be expressly stated either by writing or verbally or implied that is by the conduct of the parties. For the scenario of expressly stated contract then the parties include their intention to resolve their disagreement in court and important to mention the name of the court must be included. Court may also determine if the element of intention by the conducts of the parties that are consistent with the intention even if the intention was not specifically mentioned in the agreement (James & Field, 2013, p. 102). The following considerations are put in place, to determine by law courts if the parties involved in the agreement (without a clearly or specifically stated intention) implied an intention to be legally bound. First, the relationship of the parties is keenly observed, if friends or relatives or client and businessperson: second, the nature of the agreement in dispute: Thirdly, if any history of dealing between the parties exist and finally if either parties has gained benefit under the agreement (Emerson, 2009, pp. 80-91). The following are the facts involved in the dyad: Jack and Jill become close friends after working in the same company for one year. Jack has been a co-worker and has never been selling cars. Reason of offering to sell his car was because he currently having a company car. Jack wanted to sell his car at extremely fair price, reduced by half, to her friend but within a specified period (not beyond Friday) but yielded to the counter-offer of up to Sunday without any condition attached to that. Jack sold the car to Clarence on Sunday morning by more than thrice the price intended to be bought by Jill citing that the offer was too good to refuse. Finally, all this agreement is verbally

The High Cost of Discount Culture Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The High Cost of Discount Culture - Assignment Example Since buying it was the only expense incurred, watching television became the preferred leisure activity for almost half of the population. Executives at the television broadcasters were more concerned with advertisers than the viewers because advertisers brought in revenue. The biggest revenue generator was the cigarette industry (Thompson & Joseph 19). The advertisers influenced entertainment with the potential to attract most viewers. With free home entertainment, the movie industry saw a diminishing number of audiences. With endless soap operas, comedies and advertisements, television discouraged the reading culture and shortened attention spans while promoting violence (Thompson & Joseph 19). People all over the country shared a common thing because of the television.  In conclusion, television became the monarchy of entertainment. It bore an appeal to the majority middle class who had conventional tastes. Television offered entertainment they could identify with, thus influen cing a cultural bond among them (Shell 9). Those who watched common television programmes adopted a lifestyle from them.         

World War II Pacific Campaign Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

World War II Pacific Campaign - Essay Example The resultant effect of any war may be positive or negative depending on the actual causes and the main reasons as to the breakout. Positive effects of wars occur if by the end of the specific war, the participant embraces peace on the account of fearing each others’ strength and war capabilities. Sometimes the end of the given war may prove blessing moment for the particular participants especially upon achieving economic stability derived from increased production activities and sales of war equipments to the other participants. The negative effects of any war involve the massive loss of lives of the soldiers participating in the given war. Economy of some of the participating parties may also end up crushing beyond repair, thus marking the error of economic struggle. World War II was one of the magnificent types of war having been fought across all the six world’s continents. The reasons for the outbreak of this war related to the Global economic depression that begu n in 1922, and shook the world’s unity and trust1. The result of the untrustworthy among nations especially in Europe was the fight for economic and military dominancy over the region and world in general. Following the massive destruction witnessed, friendly nations across the world begun to initiate alliances that would enable them fight the common aggressors and attain peace. Attaining this peace took a very long process that saw increased devastation of properties and lives of the conflicting alliances. However, after the long struggle and massive devastation, the world finally achieved the long lasted peace, but leaving behind scars that have never disappeared to date. Fascism defined the benchmark of power organization across the world upon the onset of the World War II. The spirit of fascism first occurred in Italy in 1920, when country was under the rule of Benito Mussolini. This antidemocratic spirit then spread to Germany as embraced by Adolf Hitler, Spain as adopte d by Francisco Franco and Japan under Hideki Tojo. Remaining countries major countries like Britain, France, and Russia and by extension USA opposed fascism. 2The spirit of fascism saw countries like Italy and Germany breaking the initially signed Versailles Treaty intended to limit imperialism of the parties. Japan also being under the military rule, planned to increase its territory across China and elsewhere in the world to consolidate land for its industrial raw materials and market. 3These quests for power saw the world into the WW II, with Germany shaking Europe with great war force. Japan also continued to break through China and some parts of Europe while at the same time killing and torturing innocent citizens. In response to this feud in Europe and desire to restore peace, the Soviet Union lined up with Communists countries in Europe, Britain, France and USA to form the Popular Front. The group mainly comprised of members who condemned fascism and its effects in Europe and world in general. The Popular Front however stumbled upon the official inception of World War II, when France and Britain attacked Germany with USA withdrawing to take a neutral position. In 1940, USA tended to favor and side with Britain after signing pact that would allow USA offer military assistance and supplies to Britain. In 1941 after the US Presidential elections, Presidential elect Roosevelt sensed danger to the US security earmarked by increasing attack on Britain. For this reason, he instituted the Lend-Lease Act that would see USA provide direct assistance to Britain4. After facing severe attacks from Germany, Soviet Union (Russia) also sought for inclusion in the Lend-Lease Act

The Effects of Violence Video Games on Children Behavior Essay

The Effects of Violence Video Games on Children Behavior - Essay Example The increased involvement of the people in the playing of video games has portrayed the negative effects that they can lead to. This is particularly true of violent video games as there has been a strong association between the playing of violent video games and increase in crime amongst youths. It has been analyzed that the playing of violent video games has resulted in many criminal acts which include robberies as well as murders. This paper will serve to explain the history of these violent video games and their strong association with acts of crime that have taken place owing to the negative impact of these violent video games. There has been a great rise in the popularity of video games and the number of people playing these games has widely increased. It is believed that children of the age group from 8 to 18 years in the United States have an exposure of 40 hours out of seven days to different forms of media. There has been a sharp increase in the exposure to video games by th e children and the teenagers. It has been analyzed that children even as young as two years play video games on an average of one hour every day. In the age group of 8 to 13 year old boys, it has been seen that they tend to play video games for more than approximately 7.5 hours in a single week. Another very important aspect that has been highlighted is that a research among teenagers explained the fact that the games that they purchased were not reviewed and analyzed by their parents and hence there is no check on the nature of the video games that are played by these children (Anderson et al 2001). It has been found out that 75 percent of the teenagers actually purchase and play video games that are meant for adults and these games have very high content of violence and negativities portrayed in them (Adams, 2010). The extent of the violence exposure has been explained by the statistics in a study which shows that in the United States, the young generation is exposed to 40,000 kil lings by some form of media by the time they acquire the age of 18 years (Anderson 2005). The history of video games dates to the years following 1970. But the video game that became a matter of debate was the game which was named "Death Race 2000". This game was based upon a car which was to be driven over bodies that were made of sticks. The game did not have good graphics but still the violent theme of the game sparked many debates. The last decade of the twentieth century came with many new games which were far more violent than the Death Race. These games included Mortal Kombat, Street Fighter, Wolfenstein 3D and Night Trap. All these games were based on violent themes. The Mortal Kombat was particularly a game which received much attention and became the favorite of young children. It was based solely on killing the opponents. This led to major controversies and the matter became a national issue. The matter also reached the Senate and a prominent member from the Senate Joe Li eberman presented the idea that restrictions should be imposed on video games. Night Trap was removed voluntarily by the shop owners following these issues and the video game industry also became aware that such games could result in blows to their industry. Thus, the video game industry formed a body which is termed as Entertainment Software Rating Board in the year 1994 to check on the violent and sexual material of the

School violence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

School violence - Essay Example To start with, single parents have increased tremendously. There many different studies that use single parents to demonstrate the effects children have of not being exposed to both a maternal and paternal figure. However, single parents are not just people whose spouses have passed away and the family is left to cope with the loss. Single parents can be divorcee, widowed, or have never even been married. Not being exposed to a paternal and maternal figure can lead to many mental disturbances, provoking violent and unacceptable behavior. On 22nd March of 2005, a 17 year old Jeff Weise terrorized the Minnesota school. It was one of the worst school shootouts recorded in history. A few students were injured but more horrifying was the fact that some students had actually lost their lives. Jeff Weise had also shot himself after a shootout with the police ("Massacre in Minnesota"). Before coming to school, Jeff had shot his grandfather and his grandfather's 32-year-old girlfriend. Jeff was categorized by his schoolmates as antisocial. No doubt, Jeff himself had lived a rather depressing life. His father committed suicide four years back and his mother got into an auto accident which placed her in the nursery. Jeff was living with his grandfather who was on the force. This kind of absurdity exists because certain kids are lacking the attention they need. In Jeff's case, he was lacking a lot of attention. After his father committed suicide, when Jeff was only thirteen-years-old, Jeff had most probably not been able to ful ly cope and recover from that traumatic experience. In a Psychology article by Lawrence J. Walker, this kind of behavior is called as an outcry for help (Walker 1997). When kids do not get the attention they crave, no other choice is left but to resort to negative attention. The negative attention is the only way these kids get any attention at all. The more parents neglect their children or fail to understand what it is that their children want, the higher are the chances that these children will join the wrong crowd and try getting negative attention. Another way single parents are contributing to the lack of attention given to the children is by giving in to the children's demands. Propaganda in advertising is targeted for these children of single parents. When a child sees the big yellow M sign and the happy smiling face of Ronald, they usually scream with delight, "McDonald!" It is difficult for a single parent to refuse to the demands their child is making. This is not just because the parent is showing affection, but rather because by refusing the child, the parent will have to deal with a lot of fuss and tantrums that is timing consuming. And time is one thing that single parents really do not have. This leads to the child maintaining a habit of unhealthy food and even worse, of getting anything it desires. The child from an early age has learned be assertive. This is a good quality as being opposed to having a low self-esteem, but in some cases, this kind of assertiveness reappears as the child goes to school and bullies t he other children. The purpose of this paper is of course not to bash single parents but rather to show that some single parents are not giving their children the attention the child needs. Another way single

Myth. Why did myth survive the scientific and philosophic challenges Essay

Myth. Why did myth survive the scientific and philosophic challenges of the classical Greek world - Essay Example Why did the myth survive the scientific and philosophical challenges of the classical Greek world? Introduction: Myth is some idea or a belief which is absurd and fictitious and has originated in the prehistoric times which came into being naturally and inevitably. The myths developed due to the fact that the inhospitable environment that the primitive man encountered. The origin of the myth during the prehistoric times or during the childhood of mankind might due to two reasons: one may be the fear that might have been created during an occurrence of the natural phenomenon such as thunder or storm for example, and another might be as a remembrance of the events of the past. So, as the history of the mankind developed, the language and the practices also developed along with the myth. The religion, rituals and the myths are all developed in parallel but are distinct from one another. The myths have a great part in the development of the religion. However, equating the myth with the r eligion is not possible. Myth is the response of the mankind to the natural environment (Graff, Fritz., et al., 1996). Over the centuries, Greek culture developed and underwent many changes in this context of the myths. Until a few centuries the Greeks were supporting myths and after the eighteenth century the Greeks used to refer the word myth by ‘muthos’ which means stories and words and started defending with the evidence of the scientific evidences and facts referred by ‘logos’. ... So the first thing is that the myth is developed out of lack of explanations. Explanations: Myth seemed to have strong thoughts on the areas where the scientific and reasoning does not produce the results. To explain briefly, myth plays a strong role where the reasoning doesn’t seem much to offer. For example, in the case to speculate what happens after the death. A common explanation is that death is a fact and can occur to anybody regardless of their age and status of their living. If we reason out this fact the next immediate question arises is that what would happen after death and it would be related to the good and the bad lives the individual had lived through out his / her lifetime. So in order to explain this question it is sorted out that the soul of those who lived good lives would go to the Elysium and the soul of those who lived bad lives would go to the Tartarus and punished to the degree of unpleasantness. Another part where the myth played its role is the place where there is unreliable and nonexistent of historical evidences. So these kinds of explanations depend on the social, cultural and the educational background of the believer and what is actually believed. Reinforcement: The reinforcement of the political, social and ethical position of the subject in the context might also be a reason for the explanations of the myths. For example the Roman emperor Nero used to identify him with Gods in order to manipulate his image. In order to impress this myth the emperor image was cast in the coins by the architects which would image him as a god. Issues: The issues which created as a result of the reinforcement of the authority are social and cultural tensions, and dilemmas. Therefore a myth could be changed and manipulated to

Tango Music Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Tango Music - Essay Example And that, of course, was my mistake. He wasn't dancing the rhythm of the music. He was dancing the phrase." The Tango is Argentina's cultural and national contribution to the European world. It has come to show the soul and personality of Latin style. The music emphasizes themes of passion and desire, despair and loneliness, jealousy, and its spiritual and emotional dance moves are memorable for their pictures of intertwined limbs and Latin machismo. There are differing points of view on the origins of the word tango but all researchers agree that it was used in America to help gathering of the black population for social aims. Jorge Novati in "Antologia del Tango Rioplatense" carries these meetings to the late 18th century in Buenos Aires. Alejo Carpentier in "La Musica en Cuba" says that the tango was in Cuba also. Around 1880, in the gambling houses and bars, lonely men spent time drinking, socializing, gambling, and looking for a little romance in the company of women of bad repute, trying to step to the music. This gave rise to the new dance, tango. This proximity of the bodies in public was considered to be impossible and scandalous. The black population in America used and adapted European forms for their entertainment, tradition and rituals. That is why the music and choreographic was transformed by the addition of rhythms and some other elements which were typical for African culture music and dance. One of the most influential genres in the rise and finding its individuality of the early tango was the Cuban habanera. Using the materials of historian and writer Alejo Carpentier, the habanera developed in Cuba from the mixture of African rhythmic influences and the French contredanse. The habanera became a real sensation and was transported back into Spain, where it was known as tango Americano. The habanera came to Buenos Aires in the late 19th century and became very popular there. Musicologist Jorge Novati, who continued the work of Carlos Vega, tells us, that the habanera had two versions: very popular and lascivious and another, more decent, which existed in late 19th century Buenos Aires. The popular version was danced by the African-American population at their gatherings, called tangos. The more acceptable version, meanwhile, was danced in the salons. By the last decades of the 19th century, a distinct dance form of dance was developed, which gathered the inventions of the Afro-Argentines: the corte and quebrada. The corte refers to a sudden stop in the general walk of the dance. During this stop the dancers would show different figures that added to a new vocabulary of dance. The quebrada was an undulation of the hips, and gave erotic character to the dance. It became so popular that it start to influence musicians, they start to incorporate different rhythmic variations into their own music. The music they played was a mix of European popular dance forms, such as the mazurka and schottische, habaneras, and milongas. According to Novati, the milonga had a short but productive existence in Buenos Aires, and is the ancestor of the early tango (tango criollo). It was really a rural poetic form but in the later version it resembled the rhythmic patterns of the habanera and became the main part in the birth of Argentine Tango. Musicians started gathering their repertoire and the first composers of Spanish-tinged tango-milonga and gaucho-influenced

Student Essay Example for Free

Student Essay Art is one of many ways of communication. Art is used to express feelings or to deliver a message to a viewer. It is also used to leave a record of things that happened during the time the artwork was created. Ancient artwork usually talks about religious practices, spiritual beliefs or even their dependence on nature for survival whereas 21st century street artwork are usually personal opinions on something such as politics, action done by someone or new law. It also contains the artist’s feeling of the time the artwork was created. Every street artists of the 21st century has different styles whereas ancient artists used similar (close to same) styles. Creative Purpose†¦. Fig. 1, Elderly Woman, Street Art London, 2011 Fig. 1, Elderly Woman, Street Art London, 2011 The ancient artworks, in this case, ancient Egyptian art, were used to keep record of achievements, spiritual beliefs and spiritual practices. Most of the spiritual practices were practices of mummifying dead bodies, believing that the soul from the dead body will go to either heaven or hell. Ancient Egyptians believed in afterlife quite heavily. Most of the ancient Egyptian kings (Pharaohs) were mummified due to this belief. Furthermore, many of the ancient Egyptian artworks have Gods in them. There are Gods for certain things such as God of the Sun and God of Death. However, the 21st century street art is more of expressing the artist’s feelings and commenting on certain things such as politics. For example, there is a famous street artist who lives in Paris, France, who has a nickname called ‘C215’ (real name is Christian Guemy). His artworks usually have people involved in them. However, his artworks are not just about normal people but people like beggars, elderly people, refugees and street kids because he is ‘obsessed’ with making an artwork of them, artwork of people who grew up in streets and lived in streets. He said, â€Å"I paint mostly tramps, refugees and street kids, people who really live the experience of the street and to whom the  street art  is almost never intended. † Visual Character†¦. Fig. 2, Ancient Egyptian Art, Tutt’ Art, 2011 Fig. 2, Ancient Egyptian Art, Tutt’ Art, 2011 Ancient Egyptian artworks often have people and Gods with appearances with human in them. The people in the ancient Egyptian artworks have their arms and shoulders positioned facing the front while their faces are facing the side, along with their legs and hips. The artworks of ancient Egypt are very symbolic. They have many meanings in the artwork, especially when it talks about spiritual practices and beliefs. Sometimes, they also have writings around or in the artwork. It probably could be understood by many other cultures except for those cultures wit completely different beliefs. However, street arts are understood by nearly everyone in the world as they have similar beliefs and religions. When it Fig. 3, Smiling Refugee, Street Art London, 2011 Fig. 3, Smiling Refugee, Street Art London, 2011 comes to personal comments on politics, it may be hard for some people to understand. The 21st century street artworks are very stylized, having different themes and styles for every street artists, except for those street artists who only leave their names or nicknames on walls. Theses can be seen as mess on the wall because it has no meaning in it. A street artist called ‘C215’ has very colourful style. This artist is told to be realistic but stylized. C215 describes the facial expressions of the main characters in his artworks very precisely to deliver a hidden message behind the art piece. As shown Fig. 4, Street Kid, Street Art London, 2011. Fig. 4, Street Kid, Street Art London, 2011. in figure one, three and four, he describes the facial expressions of elderly woman, refugee and a ‘street kid’ very precisely. Also, famous street artists often leave their special ‘logo’ somewhere in the artwork. For instance in figure four, a ‘logo’ for C215 can be seen next to the face. Medium and Technique†¦. Most of the common ancient Egyptian artworks were painted with paints made of mixed pigments with gum, which were the basic colours. Before papyrus leaves were used as papers, the paintings were often done on walls, which were sometimes carved in. These kinds of techniques were used in ancient Egyptian times because the actual paints and paintbrushes weren’t properly developed. Today, many kinds of tools and styles can be used. For example, C215 usually used stencils to paint on street walls. He makes a background on the wall either free hand or painted using stencils, and then puts his main character in the background. He either uses spray paints or paints and paintbrushes, but mostly, spray paints. It shows his personal style and it helps him to paint precise parts of painting such as facial expressions. Personal Response†¦. I think that every kind of art has one thing common in them; the artist’s feeling and expression of the time he/she created the artwork. If there is a slight difference between ancient Egyptian art and the 21st century street art, I have go to say that the artworks from ancient Egypt do not have sense of depth and they were all dull whereas 21st century street art has wide range of colours being used and vibrant. Most people will find street art more attractive than ancient Egyptian art as street art has different styles and they are very vibrant. Conclusion†¦. To sum up, ancient Egyptian art has many meanings for spiritual beliefs and practices. It was very symbolic as it represented human by its body parts, so the head is facing the side, shoulders and arms are facing the front and shoulders and arms are facing the side. It is mostly painted with basic colours that are made of mixed pigments and gum. On the other hand, graffiti is more like expressing a personal opinion on certain thing. It has many themes and styles along with many choices of colours. Almost everyone can understand street art. Furthermore there are many ways to paint for street art and one of many ways is stencils and paints.

The women in development perspective

The women in development perspective In the last three decades, the recruitment of women into the modern sector has been at the centre of the development debate in developing countries. Despite many years of practical feminist activity and numerous studies of everyday life, progress towards gender equality still reflects a growing concern. The term women in development is primarily used to refer to operational objectives that incorporate women into the development process. Consequently, this paper will argue that the women in development perspective (WID) provides a useful approach because it clearly explores many dimensions of womens subordination issue in capitalist countries and analyses gender division of labour which explain the durability of gender inequality, followed by concrete solutions such as incorporating women into development and providing women with training and education. With Perspective explained that the reason of gender inequality in development countries is rooted in the principles of womens subordination. First of all, it is noteworthy that womens invisibility and the unequal treatments are not limited to the house area, but exist in all area of society. Keeping in mind that the patriarchal system that placed women under the authority of fathers or husband. Is certainly, taken to mean the dominance of all men over all women. Patriarchy seems to impose itself in gender relation as well as within capitalist society (Martinez, 2009). I believe that patriarchy is what produces gender divisions because the use of this word characterizes a domestic mode of production in which men as a class exploit women as a class. It is true that the system in which we live tends to make people perceive women as domestic labourers which reduces them to the subordinate positions of minors therefore women are expected to produce labour power by looking after her husba nd and children (Martinez, 2009). It is worthy to point out that the title housewife is an evidence of deterioration in the position of women because people see industrialisation as a separation of home and work therefore creates gender inequality. In fact, men have organized capitalism in a way that they maintain patriarchal power, both within the market work and within the home. Basically, men extract surplus labour from women; this is shown with the example of south Asia when the micro-credit program was introduced. Searchers have indicated that most of the credit contracted by women end up in activities controlled by the man of the house (Pearson, p. 397). However, based on my understanding of capitalism, I support that women domestic labour which is used to explain gender division which subordinate women should be considered important because even if it is often forgotten, womens domestic labour make a direct economic contribution in capitalist society in term of reproduction. Pursuing this thought further, the male domination is frequently seen as a strategy for development process because its aim is to shift the burden of women form the development and create a complete hegemonic masculinities which means that the capitalist societies with a high masculinity expectation is specifically looking for certain ways of being and behaving that are associated with dominance and power. This is usual encouraged in male and discouraged in female (Pearson, p. 401). The truth is that as long as this ideology stays the driven force in developing countries, there will always be a durability of gender inequalities. It is relevant that male violence towards women has s long history which led to the establishment of patriarchy and represents therefore a real creation of male dominance. Keeping in mind that power emanates from force, it weighs the point that men have used numerous practices of subordination such as violence against women to maintain male domination in the house (Martinez, 2009). Unfortunately, male domination exists in all societies therefore; it becomes the universal explanation of the gender inequalities. The perspective argues that the major complexity of gender inequality is based on the gender division in labour. When looking at the work market, it is relevant that there is a big difference in types of jobs women and men do, the pay they receive, the hours they work and the skills they acquire. Therefore, the society has depicted as we call mens work and womens work proving that workforce in capitalist society is divided and attributed according to gender with womens work being the lower. As stated above, this difference is the reason why people consistently value mens work and regard it as demanding a certain level of skill which most womens work lacks. As a matter of fact, Pearson explains that the Ecofeminism has been established from the idea of women as environmental managers because people link both spiritual and conceptual sense between women and nature therefore, think that environmental conservation is more appropriate to women (Pearson, p. 391). This hard gender segregati on of the workforce is what makes it difficult for women to achieve equal pay with men. Men most of time occupy the skilled sectors of the workplace for example, in Canada; one is more likely to encounter a male manager and female secretary and never the opposite. Looking at this situation, I can only think that despite the so called equality legislation, the adjustment of earnings between men and women is painfully slow. The perspective provides various solutions to close the gap between men and women. Will be considered only two of them in this paper: the integration of women in development and provide required education and training to women. The first general solution of the strategy is to implemented women in development process both as agents and as beneficiaries. This proposition is very interesting because it implies that women should be assigned with a particular roles and responsibilities which put them in position to contribute fully in the economic growth. However, the problem with this solution is that it does not solve the issue of womens subordination. Also, speaking of role, how long will it last? Of course, women in development policy recognizes that development must involve both women and men in order to be more effective. In the same thought, capitalist societies are willing to integrate women in development process by creating more and more jobs whether full time or part time, most ly part time jobs in the idea of accommodating women who have family therefore making womens participation in workplace extremely low. I think that women in development perspective misses the point here because, the problem is not that women are left out but that they are integrated into a shaped gender division labour which always put them in a position of subordinates therefore no matter what particular role women play, it does not change the fact that women are still disadvantaged relative to men. Basically, the solution does not resolve the contradiction because it restricts the choice of jobs open to women and I do not think that encouraging part time employment suggest any possibility of future changes in womens social status and economic relationships. The second solution is to provide women with the required training and education. Indeed, in developing countries, the prestige of receiving an education and training may be the key factor in setting womens participation in development. The point if I understand well is to eliminate illiteracy and basic education by introducing whatever new programs. For sure this will reduce any obstacles to the participation of women in the economic growth. Moreover, I think this solution is reasonable because the reality is that in developing countries, the lack of knowledge and essential training has led to the development in which women are excluded as participants. However, there is a little concern about this project. When looking around the world, one can notice that women face barriers in education because of religious, economic and cultural consideration. For instance, in term of economic, not all women possess the resources needed to pay the education fees. In addition, the program itself must meet the women availability such as the time of the day, the duration of the program and its location. Another thing that is wrong with this proposition is that the education and the training do not reflect or they are not linked to employment opportunities that will permit them to put in application what they have learnt. Furthermore, in this context, it is particularly illuminating to examine the field of the program because if the training is for example focusing on liberal art, then I think it would be a waste of time because it might not be necessary linked to a job opportunity. Finally, as it appears, several of the constitutive explanations of gender inequalities in developing countries is that in thinking about womens subordination and the gender division labour, one must accord full weight to their affects on the development process. Indeed, the women in development perspective provides a useful approach and offers concrete solutions, even if they still show some concern. One must actually pause and recognizes that the task is to learn how to participate in a constructive development and to put committed efforts in order to apply those solutions in the social relations and redress the worldwide gender inequality.

Importance of biofuels

Importance of biofuels Abstract World demand for energy has been projected to double by 2050 and be more than triple by the end of the century. Since industrial revolution in the 1850s, the human consumption of fossil fuels has been one of the growing causes of international concern and unease among some industrial nations. The reasons for which can be attributed to the rapidly depleting reserves of fossil fuels. Over the past few decades, with the successes achieved in genetic engineering technology, advances made in the field of biofuels offer the only immediate solution to fossil fuels. Presently, most of the ethanol in use is produced either from starch or sugar, but these sources have not proven to be sufficient to meet the growing global fuel requirements. However, conversion of abundant and renewable cellulosic biomass into alternative sources of energy seems to be an effective and promising solution. But for this technology to become viable there is a need to develop cheap and sustainable sources of cellulases along with eliminating the need for pretreatment processes. The review thus aims to provide a brief overview about the need and importance of biofuels particularly bioethanol with respect to the growing environmental concerns along with an urgent need to address the existing problems about cost-optimisation and large scale production of biofuels. 1.0 Introduction Biofuels are liquid fuels derived from plants. Currently, first generation biofuels are extensively being produced and used. These are generated using starch, sugar, vegetable oils and animal fats using fairly expensive conventional technology. In recent years, the fact that production of ethanol from cellulosic and lignocellulosic material is being hindered due to inadequate technology to enable efficient and economically viable methods to break down the multipolymeric raw material has gained wide popularity (Verma et al, 2010). Therefore, there is a need to develop efficient systems for the production of cellulases and other cellulose degrading enzymes. Lignocellulosic biofuels are thus likely to be seen as a part of the portfolio of solutions being offered to reduce high energy prices, including more efficient energy use along with the use of other alternative fuels (Coyle, 2007). 1.1 Importance of biofuels: Factors like the finite petroleum reserves and constantly rising demands for energy by the industrialised as well as the highly populated countries (on their Way to industrialisation) like India and china have made it absolutely necessary to look into alternate and efficient methods to replace these fuels in future (Stephanopoulos, 2008). Also, concerns like steep rise in fossil fuel prices in the recent years, increasing concerns about climate change like global warming, insecurity and unrest among governments due to their depleting natural reserves are just a few factors that define an urgent need for a sustainable path towards renewable fuel technology development (Stephanopoulos, 2008). Among the various types of alternative fuels considered (liquid fuels from coal and/or biomass with and without carbon capture and storage (CCS)), biofuels derived from lignocellulosic biomass offer the most clean and sustainable alternative to fossil fuels essentially because of their cost compet itiveness as opposed to the current expensive methods of ethanol production from sugarcane and corn (Stephanopoulos, 2008) (Shen and Gnanakaran, 2009). The global production and use of biofuels has increased tremendously in recent years, from 18.2 billion litres in 2000 to about 60.6 billion litres in 2007. It has been estimated that about 85% of this amount is bioethanol (Coyle, 2007). This increase is primarily a result of the reasons stated above along with rising concerns about global warming and greenhouse gas emissions due to excessive fossil fuels usage since biofuels are carbon-neutral and reduce green house emissions (Sainz, 2009). Also, one of the factors contributing to the viability of biofuels as an alternative transportation fuel is their ease of compatibility with our existing liquid fuel infrastructure (Sainz, 2009). An important step in the production of biofuels is the breakdown of cellulose fibres by the enzymes capable of degrading it. But the production of these enzymes is still an expensive task due to their production in large microorganism bioreactors. One method for the inexpensive production of these enzymes is the use of transgenic plants as heterologous protein production systems (Danna, 2001; Kusnadi et al., 1997; Twyman et al., 2003). Plant based enzyme production offers advantages over the traditional bacterial and fungal cultures by being commercially viable and particularly attractive since in plants, the desired protein can be made to accumulate at high levels i.e. at even greater levels than 10% of total soluble protein (Gray et al, 2008). Another major economic advantage of plant-based protein production over one that is microorganism-based is in the scale-up of protein expression. Whereas scale-up of microbial systems implies large purchase and maintenance costs for large fermentors and related equipment, scale-up of plant-based protein product would only require planting of more seeds and harvesting of a larger area (Gray et al, 2008). Cellulase expressing transgenic plants may thus offer significant capital cost savings over more traditional cellulase production via cellulolytic fungi or bacteria (Gray et al, 2008). Ethanolis an alcohol fuel currently made from the sugars found in grains, such as corn, sorghum, and wheat, as well as potato skins, rice, sugar cane, sugar beets, molasses and yard clippings. Currently, there are two methods employed for the production of bioethanol. In the first process, sugar crops or starch are grown and fermented to produce ethanol. The second process, naturally oil producing plants like Jatropha and algae are utilised to produce oils which can directly be utilised as fuel for diesel engines after heating them to reduce their viscosity. However, currently, it is majorly being produced from starch (Corn in US) and sugar (Sugarcane in Brazil) sources. According to the latest statistics (in 2008), USA and Brazil (fig. 1) were the major producers of fuel ethanol by producing 51.9% and 37.3% of global bioethanol respectively (http://www.ethanolrfa.org/industry/statistics/#E). Brazil especially produces ethanol to a large extent from fermentation of sugarcane sugar to cater to one-fourth of its ground transportation needs (Sticklen, 2008).Similarly, to meet part of its own needs; United States produces ethanol from corn. Unfortunately, inspite of being breakthrough developments, the production of ethanol by this method is not cost-effective and barely manages to meet less than about 15 % of the countrys demands (Sticklen, 2008). Their use as energy crops is thus posing to be inappropriate since these are primary food sources, and are unstable from the viewpoints of long-term supply and cost (Sainz, 2009). The restrictions on available land and the rising price pressures would soon limit the production of grain and corn based ethanol to less than 8% in the US transport fuel mix (Tyner, 2008). Similarly, in spite of a predicted increase to 79.5 billion litres by 2022 in ethanol production from sugarcane in Brazil, this technology would eventually be limited by the same agro-economic factors affecting the grain and the corn based ethanol production (Sainz, 2009). For e.g. the use of corn for production of ethanol has led to an increase in the prices of livestock and poultry since it is the main starch component of the animal feed. Therefore, there is an urgent need for new and sustainable technologies for a significant contribution of biofuels towards the progress of renewable sources of energy and the reduction of greenhouse gases (Sainz, 2009). Thus, the benefits of a high efficiency of carbohydrate recovery compared to other technologies and the possibilities of technology improvement due to breakthrough processes in biotechnology, offer cost-competitive solutions for bioethanol production, thus making the second generation or lignocellulosic sources the most attractive option the large scale production of biofuels (Wyman et al, 2005). 3.0 Potential of cellulosic bioethanol Cellulosic ethanolis abiofuelproduced from wood, grasses, or the non-edible parts of plants. It is a type ofbiofuelproduced frombreaking down of lignocellulose, a tough structural material that comprises much of the mass of plants and provides them rigidity and structural stability (Coyle, 2007). Lignocellulose is composed mainly ofcellulose,hemicelluloseandlignin (Carroll and Sommerville, 2009). Another factor that makes the production of cellulosic bioethanol a promising step in future is that unlike corn and sugarcane, its production is not dependent on any feedcrop since cellulose is the worlds most widely available biological material that can be obtained from widely available low-value materials like wood waste, widely growing grasses and crop wastes and manures (Coyle, 2007). But production of ethanol from lignocellulose requires a greater amount of processing to make the sugar monomers available to the microorganisms that are typically used to produce ethanol by fermentation. Bioethanol is one fuel that is expected to be in great global demand in the coming years since its only main requirement is the abundant supply of biomass either directly from plants or from plant derived materials including animal manures. It is also a clean fuel as it produces fewer air-borne pollutants than petroleum, has a low toxicity and is readily biodegradable. Furthermore, the use of cellulosic biomass allows bioethanol production in countries with climates that are unsuitable for crops such as sugarcane or corn. For example, the use of rice straw for the production of ethanol is an attractive goal given that it comprises 50% of the words agronomic biomass (Sticklen, 2008). Though cellulosic ethanol is a promising fuel from an environmental point of view, its industrial production and commercialisation has not been progressing successfully. This can mainly be attributed to the high cost of production of cellulose degrading enzymes -Cellulases (Lynd et.al, 1996). Yet another very important factor is the pretreatment of lignocellulosic content in the biomass to allow cellulases and hemicellulases to penetrate and break the cellulose in the cell wall. These two steps together incur very high costs and are a hindrance in efficient production of cellulosic bioethanol. Thus plant genetic engineering is the best alternative to bioreactors for an inexpensive production of these enzymes (cellulases and hemicellulases). It can also be used to modify the lignin content/amount to reduce the need for expensive pretreatment (Sticklen, 2008). 4.0 The abundance and structure of cellulose Photosynthetic organisms such as plants, algae and some bacteria produce more than 100 million tonnes of organic matter each year from the fixation of carbon dioxide. Half of this biomass is made up of the biopolymer cellulose which, as a result, is perhaps the most abundant It is the most common organic compound on Earth. Cellulose comprises about 33 percent of all plant matter, 90 percent of cotton is composed of cellulose and so is around 50 percent of wood (Britannica encyclopaedia, 2008). Higher plant tissues such as trees, cotton, flax, sugar beet residues, ramie, cereal straw, etc represent the main sources of cellulose. This carbohydrate macromolecule is the principal structural element of the cell wall of the majority of plants. Cellulose is also a major component of wood as well as cotton and other textile fibres such as linen, hemp and jute. Cellulose and its derivatives are one of the principal materials of use for industrial exploitation (paper, nitrocellulose, cellulose acetate, methyl cellulose, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) etc.) and they represent a considerable economic investment (Pà ©rez and Mackie, 2001). Cellulose and lignin are the majorcombustiblecomponents of non-foodenergy crops. Some of the examples of non-feed industrial crops are tobacco, miscanthus, industrial hemp, Populus(poplar) species and Salix(willow). Celluloseserves as one of the major resistance to external chemical, mechanical, or biological perturbations in plants. This resistance ofcelluloseto depolymerization is offered by its occurrence as highly crystalline polymer fibers (Shen and Gnanakaran, 2009).it occur in plants in two crystalline forms, I-aand I-ß(Nishiyama et al, 2002) (Nishiyama et al, 2003). The crystal structures of both these forms suggest that hydrogen (H) bonding plays a key role in determining the properties ofcellulose (Shen and Gnanakaran, 2009).Thechemical formula of cellulose is(C6H10O5) n. It is apolysaccharideconsisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand ß (1?4) linkedD-glucoseunit (Crawford, 1981) (Updegraff, 1969). This tough crystalline structure of cellulose molecules is proving to be a critical roadblock in the production of cellulosic bioethanol as it is difficult to breakdown the microfibrils of crystalline cellulose to glucose (Shen and Gnanakaran, 2009). 4.1 Primary structure of cellulose The main form of cellulose found in higher plants is I-ß. The primary structure of cellulose as shown in figure 2, is a linear homopolymer of glucose residues having theDconfiguration and connected byß-(1-4) glycosidic linkages (Sun et al, 2009). Essentially, the occurrence of intrachain and interchain hydrogen bonds (fig. 3) in cellulose structures has been known to provide thermostability to its crystal complex (Nishiyama, 2002). Intrachain hydrogen bonds are known to raise the strength and stiffness of each polymer while the interchain bonds along with weak Wander-Waals forces hold the two sheets together to provide a 2-D structure. This arrangement makes the intrachain bonding stronger than that holding the two sheets together (Nishiyama, 2002). The chain length and the degree of polymerisation of glucose units determine many properties of the cellulose molecule like its rigidity and insolubility compared to starch (Shigeru et al, 2006). Cellulose from different sources also varies in chain lengths, for e.g. cellulose from wood pulp has lengths between 300 and 1700 units while that from fibre plants and bacterial sources have chain lengths varying from 800 to 10,000 units (Klemm et al, 2005). Cellulose, a glucose polymer is the most abundant component in the cell wall. These cellulose molecules consist of long chains of sugar molecules. The process of breaking down these long chains to free the sugar is called hydrolysis. This is then followed by fermentation to produce bioethanol. Various enzymes are involved in the complex process of breaking down glycosidic linkages in cellulose (Verma et al, 2010). These are together known as glycoside hydrolases and include endo- acting cellulases and exo-acting cellulases or cellobiohydrolase along with ß-glucosidase (Ziegelhoffer, 2001) (Ziegler, 2000). In the cellulose hydrolysis process, endoglucanase first randomly cleaves different regions of crystalline cellulose producing chain ends. Exoglucanase then attaches to the chain ends and cleaves off the cellobiose units. The exoglucanase also acts on regions of amorphous cellulose with exposed chain ends without the need for prior endoglucanase activity. Finally ß-glucosidase breaks the bonds between the two glucose sugars of cellobiose to produce monomers of glucose (Warren, 1996). Presently, two methods are widely used for cellulose degradation on an industrial scale: Chemical hydrolysis: This is a traditional method in which, cellulose is broken down by the action of an acid, dilute and concentrated both acids can be used by varying the temperature and the pH accordingly. The product produced from this hydrolysis is then neutralised and fermented to produce ethanol. These methods are not very attractive due to the generation of toxic fermentation inhibitors. Enzymatic hydrolysis: Due to the production of harmful by-products by chemical hydrolysis, the enzymatic method to breakdown cellulose into glucose monomers is largely preferred. This allows breaking down lignocellulosic material at relatively milder conditions (50?C and pH5), which leads to effective cellulose breakdown. 6.0 Steps involved in cellulosic ethanol (bioethanol) production process The first step in the production of bioethanol, involves harvesting lignocellulose from the feedstock crops, compaction and finally its transportation to a factory for ethanol production where it is stored in a ready form for conversion. The second step is the removal of lignin present in the feedstock biomass by using heat or chemical pre-treatment methods. This step facilitates the breakdown of cell wall into intermediates and removes lignin so as to allow cellulose to be exposed to cellulases, which then break down cellulose into sugar residues. Currently, cellulases are being produced as a combination of bacterial and fungal enzymes for such commercial purposes (Sticklen, 2008). This is then followed by steps like detoxification, neutralisation and separation into solid and liquid components (Sticklen, 2008). The hydrolysis of these components then takes place by the enzymes like cellulases and hemicellulases that are produced from micro-organisms in the bioreactors (Sticklen, 2008).and finally; ethanol is produced by sugar fermentation. The figure below (fig. 4) depicts the main steps in the production of bioethanol:   7.0 Major cell wall components and the key enzymes involved in their breakdown 6.1 Cellulose and cellulases: About 180 billion tonnes of cellulose is produced per year by plants globally (Festucci et al, 2007). In the primary and secondary cell walls, about 15-30% and 40% dry mass respectively is made up of cellulose (Sticklen, 2008). Till date, it is the only polysaccharide being used for commercial production of cellulosic ethanol because of the commercial availability of its deconstructing enzymes (Sticklen, 2008). As described above, three types of cellulases are involved in the breakdown of cellulose into sugars namely, endoglucanases, exoglucanasees and ßglucosidase (Ziegler, 2000). 6.2 Hemicellulose and Xylanases: xyloglucans and hemicelluloses surround the cellulose microfibrils. So in order to break cellulose units, specific enzymes are first required to first remove the hemicellulose polysaccharide. Hemicelluloses are diverse and amorphous and its main constituent is ß-1, 4-xylan. Thus, xylanases re the most bundant type of hemicellulases required to cleave the endo-and exo-activity (Warren, 1996). These are mainly obtained from the fungi Trichoderma reesei, along with a large number of bacteria, yeast and other fungi which have been reported to produce1.4 ß-D xylanases. 6.3 Lignin and Laccasses: The major constituent of plants secondary cell wall is lignin. It accounts for nearly 10-25% of total plant dry matter (Sticklen, 2008). Unlike cellulose and hemicelluloses, the lignin polymer is not particularly linear and instead comprises of a complex of phenylpropanoid units which are linked in a 3-D network to cellulose and xylose with ester, phenyl and covalent bonds (Carpita, 2002).   White rot fungi (esp. Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Trametes versicolour) are thought degrade lignin more efficiently and rapidly than any other studied microorganisms (DSouza, 1999). P. Chrysosporium produces laccases like ligninases or lignin peroxidase, which initiate the process of degradation of lignin and manganese dependent peroxidises (Cullen, 1992). 8.0 Production of cellulases and hemicellulases in tobacco chloroplasts Protein engineering methodologies provide the best answer to concerns regarding production of improved cellulases with reduced allosteric hindrance, improved tolerance to high temperatures and specific pH optima along with higher specific activity (Sainz, 2009). The table below (table 1) lists different type of cellulases and hemicellulases that have been expressed in plant chloroplasts: Chloroplasts are green coloured plastids that have their own genome and are found in plant cells and other eukaryotic organisms like algae. The targeted expression of foreign genes in plant organelles can be used to introduce desired characteristics in a contained and economically sustainable manner (fig. 5). It also allows us to combine various other advantages like easy and efficient scalability along with being entirely free of animal pathogens. Unlike most other methods of plant genetic engineering, the major advantage with chloroplast transformation is their characteristic of transgene containment i.e. transgenes in these plastids are not spread through pollen (Verma and Daniell, 2007). This implies that chloroplast genetic transformation is fairly a safe one and does not pose the risk of producing herbicide resistant weeds (Ho and Cummins, 2005). Chloroplast transformation involves homologous recombination. Thisnot only minimises the insertion of unnecessary DNA that accompaniestransformation of the nuclear genome, but also allows precisetargeting of inserted genes, thereby also avoiding theuncontrollable, unpredictable rearrangements and deletions oftransgene DNA as well as host genome DNA at the site of insertionthat characterises nuclear transformation (Nixon, 2001). Another advantage of chloroplast transformation is that foreign genes can be over-expressed due to the high gene copy number, up to 100,000 compared with single-copy nuclear genes (Maliga, 2003). While nuclear transformants typically produce foreign protein up to 1%TSP in transformed leaf tissue, with some exceptional transformants producing protein at 5-10%TSP, chloroplast transformants often accumulate foreign protein at 5-10%TSP in transformed leaves, with exceptional transformants reaching as high as >40%TSP (Maliga, 2003). Research is needed to determine the stability of the biological activity of extracted plant-produced hydrolysis enzymes in TSP when stored under freeze conditions for different periods of time before their use in hydrolysis (Sticklen, 2008). Two other important and related areas for further research are increasing the levels of production and the biological activity of the heterologous enzymes (Sticklen, 2008).Many cell wall deconstructing enzymes have been isolated and characterised and more need to be investigated for finding more enzymes that can resist higher conversion temperatures and a range of pHs during pretreatment. Serious efforts to produce cellulosic ethanol on an industrial scale are already underway. Other than the Canadian Iorgen plant, no commercial cellulosic ethanol plant is yet in operation or under construction (Sticklen, 2008). However, research in this area is underway and funding is becoming available around the world for this purpose, from both governmental and commercial sources. For example, British Petroleum have donated half a billion dollars to US institutions to develop new sources of energy primarily biofuel crops (Sticklen, 2008). 10.0 Conclusion The fact that corn ethanol produces more green house gas emissions than gasoline and that cellulosic ethanol from non-food crops produces less green house gas emissions than electricity or hydrogen, is one of the factors that highly favour production of ethanol from cellulosic biomass (Verma, 2010). However, biofuel production from lignocellulosic materials is a challenging problem because of the multifaceted nature of raw materials and lack of technology to efficiently and economically release fermentable sugars from the complex multi-polymeric raw materials (Verma, 2010). After decades of research aimed at reducing the costs of microbial cellulases, their production is still expensive (Sticklen and Oraby, 2005). One way of decreasing such costs is to produce these enzymes within crop biomass. Although some important advances have been made to lay the foundations for plant genetic engineering for biofuel production, this science is still in its infancy (Sticklen, 2008). A general challenge is to develop efficient systems for the genetic transformation of plant systems for the production of cellulose degrading enzymes. Research is particularly needed to focus on the targeting of these enzymes to multiple subcellular locations in order to increase levels of enzyme production and produce enzymes with higher biological activities (Sticklen, 2008). A huge potential exists to produce larger amounts of these enzymes in chloroplasts, and exciting progress has been made in terms of the crops for which the chloroplast can now be genetically engineered. More effo rts are however needed towards the development of systems to genetically engineer chloroplasts of biomass crops such as cereals and perennial grasses (Blaschke, 2006). Some of the key aims of the project would be: To characterise cell wall degrading enzymes Overexpression of cellulose cDNA in pET30 vector systems Induction and characterisation of proteins in different conditions The use of tobacco plant as means of producing cellulases through chloroplast genetic engineering to simultaneously addresses the most important question of shifting the agricultural land from feed crops to biofuel crops (like corn and sugarcane at present) along with the cost-effective large scale production of cellulose degrading enzymes.

Against His Will :: Homosexuality Short Story Essays

Against His Will Imagine waking up every morning and looking in the mirror knowing that the reflection is only an illusion of one’s inner being. As soon as eighteen-year-old Brian Clark’s alarm clock goes off, prepping and primping will take place for the next hour-and-a-half. Regardless of school, work, rain, or shine, Brian always has to â€Å"dress to impress.† With his red tight shirt, blue fit jeans, black star belt, red shades, and perfectly gelled hair, Brian can now be seen in public. As a daily routine, Brian must do his â€Å"therapy† by looking in the mirror and chanting against his will, â€Å"I love you Brian. You are beautiful.† â€Å"Having to admit to yourself and your family that you are gay is the hardest thing you will ever have to do in your life.† When one enters Brian’s room the soothing aroma of men’s cologne, â€Å"cool water† fills the air. The immaculate, perfectly ordered room will catch a person’s eye. Neatly tacked to the wall, posters of Aaliyah, Josh Hartnet, and I Love Lucy draw one’s attention. Beautifully stacked and organized, fashion design magazines lie in the shelf by month and year. Picture frames sit proportioned next to each other on top of the dust-free desk. Brian’s closet is full of freshly pressed shirts and pants with the label â€Å"dry cleaning† on the bag. Although Brian shares a room with his little sister, Sarah, she chooses to live out of their closet and sleep in the living room. â€Å"After fighting over who gets the closet space and bathroom time, my sister decided to let me have the room to myself,† Brian states casually. â€Å"I feel bad at times, but I guess she realizes how tough it is for me to grow up gay. Let the best man win!† he declares with a great chuckle. For Brian, growing up and having to live a lie was painful, furthermore humiliating. â€Å"I have always known that I’m gay,† Brian states nonchalantly. â€Å"The moment I could logically think, I knew I was different.† Brian strokes the side of his hair with his fingers while stating, â€Å"All of my life I’ve felt like a girl inside. When I was little, if a person closed their eyes and listened to my voice they would have mistaken me for a girl.

Capital Punishment Essay: Controversy Distorts Capital Punishment :: Argumentative Persuasive Topics

Controversy Distorts Capital Punishment    Is it just me, or have we become totally fixated with the issue of capital punishment? Save abortion, I can't think of a single issue with more passionate advocates on each side. Waiting for the controversy over capital punishment to be resolved is like waiting for Godot.    What amazes me most about all of this passion and fervor is the fact that, on the grand scale of things, it really doesn't make a lick of difference. Oh sure, it matters to the guy who gets the needle in his arm, and it's an issue of concern to the families of his victims, but it doesn't really touch the rest of us one way or the other.    Do proponents of the death penalty really think death is a worse punishment than life in prison? Have you seen the state of our prison system these days? These places are so purgatorial that Dante should be taking notes. I'd say that execution is a merciful and favorable alternative to being incarcerated with this mà ©lange of Darwin's elite. Any sensible person would rather be skewered to death by toothpicks.    The interests of justice aren't perverted just because a murderer spends 40 years dying of dysentery rather than getting a shot of Liquid Plumber in his veins. Either way, the guy's not going to be making the same mistake twice.    On the other hand, opponents of the death penalty make it seem like all we've ever done is execute innocent grandmothers. Of course, there are probably a significant amount of innocent people getting whacked each year by the state. But as I said before, the alternative to dying for something you didn't do is spending the rest of your life as some 7-foot tall Neanderthal's girlfriend.    Critics of the death penalty often claim that it's a racist system, evidenced by the fact that African-Americans make up 12 percent of the general population but 55 percent of death row inmates in Texas. But men only make up 48 percent of the population and they consist of 98.5 percent of the death row population. If we're going to point out the prejudices of the system, sexism seems like a much more plausible complaint.    I'll admit that when you look at the numbers, it certainly looks like a racist system. Capital Punishment Essay: Controversy Distorts Capital Punishment :: Argumentative Persuasive Topics Controversy Distorts Capital Punishment    Is it just me, or have we become totally fixated with the issue of capital punishment? Save abortion, I can't think of a single issue with more passionate advocates on each side. Waiting for the controversy over capital punishment to be resolved is like waiting for Godot.    What amazes me most about all of this passion and fervor is the fact that, on the grand scale of things, it really doesn't make a lick of difference. Oh sure, it matters to the guy who gets the needle in his arm, and it's an issue of concern to the families of his victims, but it doesn't really touch the rest of us one way or the other.    Do proponents of the death penalty really think death is a worse punishment than life in prison? Have you seen the state of our prison system these days? These places are so purgatorial that Dante should be taking notes. I'd say that execution is a merciful and favorable alternative to being incarcerated with this mà ©lange of Darwin's elite. Any sensible person would rather be skewered to death by toothpicks.    The interests of justice aren't perverted just because a murderer spends 40 years dying of dysentery rather than getting a shot of Liquid Plumber in his veins. Either way, the guy's not going to be making the same mistake twice.    On the other hand, opponents of the death penalty make it seem like all we've ever done is execute innocent grandmothers. Of course, there are probably a significant amount of innocent people getting whacked each year by the state. But as I said before, the alternative to dying for something you didn't do is spending the rest of your life as some 7-foot tall Neanderthal's girlfriend.    Critics of the death penalty often claim that it's a racist system, evidenced by the fact that African-Americans make up 12 percent of the general population but 55 percent of death row inmates in Texas. But men only make up 48 percent of the population and they consist of 98.5 percent of the death row population. If we're going to point out the prejudices of the system, sexism seems like a much more plausible complaint.    I'll admit that when you look at the numbers, it certainly looks like a racist system.

Essay --

The Great Depression was an absolute economic disaster that occurred after the big stock market crash of 1929. This crashed occurred mainly because of all the excitement caused by the Roaring Twenties. Popular items like automobiles and household appliances ended up being produced in much greater quantities than were being sold. The current president of the United States, Herbert Hoover, was not succeeding at all in putting an end to The Great Depression. All Americans were desperate to find someone who would aid them in climbing out the great sink hole that was the stability of the United States. Thankfully, for them, Mr. Hoover’s successor will be the man to do the trick of bringing America out of that hole. The First and Second New Deals were responses to the worst economic tragedy in American history. Without these deals, America’s economy would have been disastrous for much longer and could have easily had a role on our economic stability today. After taking oath of office on March 4, 1933, Franklin D. Roosevelt knew that he was going to have a lot on his presidential plate. At this point in time, the economy was almost to the point of completely collapsing. Roosevelt grew up in a rich family and was never one that ever had to work just to make ends meet. He was quite intelligent, graduating from Harvard. He is known for having a charming personality and he knew how to persuade anyone to get what he wanted done accomplished. After graduating from Harvard, he started a career in banking and then went on to become the governor of New York in 1928. So, he was more than qualified for the presidency and many had faith that he could play a big role in saving America’s economy. On March 5, 1933, one day after taking oath, Roos... ...f The Great Depression. Roosevelt and his administrations efforts simply put people back to work helped stabilize the economy and gave Americans hope. Some parts of the New Deals were successful, some were not so much so. All of these acts are also responsible for providing an infrastructure to the current economic system of America and it also provided smaller things like great roads, bridges and dams to greater acts like Social Security. Roosevelt’s reforms put an end to many disasters but on the other hand, he knew there were problems that he could not change so he left them be. His efforts were so well-known and praised that after he ran for election again in 1936, he beat the Republican Party by a landslide which showed that the Americans supported him and his great actions. He deserves most, if not all of the credit for the successes of the American economy.

Capital Markets and Market Efficiency

Part 1 The Efficient market hypothesis states that all financial markets are efficient in their use of information to determine prices. This means that investors cannot expect to achieve excess profits that are more than the average market profits with similar risk factors, given all available information at the current time of investment, aside from through some form of luck. In part 1 of this report we will discuss the three different forms of market efficiency that Eugene Fama identified in her 1970 report. These can be explained as follows: 1) Weak form efficiency Fama (1970) observes that a market is efficient in weak form if past returns cannot be used to predict current stock price changes. It also assumes that prices on assets that are traded publicly already have and use all available information on the stock at any moment in time. It therefore stands to reason that the weak form of the market efficiency hypothesis means that past returns on stock are uncorrelated with future returns on the same stock. Future prices cannot be predicted by studying carefully the past prices of the stock. Excess returns cannot be earned over an extended period of time by using investment strategies that are based only upon the historical prices of shares or differing forms of historical analysis. This means that this style of technical analysis will not be able to produce high levels of returns on a consistent basis for investors. Overall one cannot expect future price changes to be predicted by using the past stock prices. Simply put weak form efficiency a ssumes that historical analysis on past stock data is of no use in predicting future price changes on stocks. 2) Semi-strong efficiency The semi-strong market efficiency form progresses from the aforementioned weak form market efficiency by stating that markets can adjust easily and very quickly to new information that is provided about various stocks. Fama (1970: 383) cites semi- strong efficiency as â€Å"whether prices efficiently adjust to other information that is publicly available. e.g. announcements of stock splits, etc†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Here it is assumed that asset prices fully reflect all of the publicly available information on the stocks meaning that only those investors who manage to possess additional unique information about the stocks could have an advantage over the market to make large gains. This form also asserts that any price outliers are found quickly and on this basis the stock market manages to adjust. In a semi-strong form efficiency share prices are able to react quickly to new information made available publicly in a quick manner so that no large returns can be gained from using the recent information. This leads us to imply that neither fundamental analysis or technical analysis will be able to produce consistent excess returns. Strong-form efficiency Strong-form efficiency assumes that prices reflect completely any type of new information about the market be that public or private information. Fama (1970: 383) says that strong form tests are concerned with â€Å"whether given investors or groups have monopolistic access to any information relevant for formation†, however Fama claims that the efficient hypothesis model still stands up well. The strong form claims the market price also includes different forms of insider information and not solely public information, and this is how it differs from the semi-strong form. The implications of this is that no one at all can therefore have any kind of advantage over the market in prediction of the stock prices as no possible additional data exists which would provide additional value to any investor. However, if any legal barriers exist which prevents the spread of useful information, such as insider trading laws for example, then this form of market efficiency is not possible. Part 2 The Efficient Markets Hypothesis was introduced by Eugene Fama in 1970. The main idea of the Efficient Market Hypothesis is predominantly that market prices must take into account all available information at any given point. Therefore meaning that no one can outperform the market by using readily available public information aside from through luck. A market is said to be efficient if the price fully reflects information about that market, for example if the price of the stock would be unaffected if all information surrounding it was revealed to all stakeholders in that market. Part two of this report will be critically discussing the evidence for and against the Efficient Market Hypothesis and whether it is possible to exploit market inefficiencies. The implications for investors and companies of the Efficient Markey Hypothesis will also be considered. Arguments For the Efficient Market Hypothesis To begin with following the birth of the efficient market hypothesis the theory was widely accepted, and it was widely assumed that the markets were very efficient in taking this information into account (Malkiel, 2003). It was accepted that when information came to the fore this would spread rapidly and would then be incorporated almost instantaneously into the share prices without hesitation. This meant that technical analysis, study of prior stock prices, nor any analysis of relevent information of a financial sense would lead an investment to achieve more successful returns than holding random stocks which have a comparable risk factor. Dimson and Mussavian (1998) observe that the evidence accumulated during the 1960s and 1970s was consistent with the Efficient Market Hypothesis view. There was a substantial backing for the weak and semi strong Efficient Market Hypothesis forms. Even though more recent times have seen an attack against the Efficient Market Hypothesis, Roll (1994) still observes that it remains incredibly difficult to make a high level of profit on a consistent basis even with the wildest variants of stock market efficiency. These violations of market efficiency are often sporadic events that do not last for a period of time. This can be seen by looking at the fact that on the whole profitable investment successes are referred to on a consistent basis as outliers (Dimson and Mussavian, 1998). Malkiel (2005: 2) says that: the strongest evidence suggesting that markets are generally quite efficient is that professional investors do not beat the market. Indeed, the evidence accumulated over the past 30-plus years makes me more convinced than ever that our stock markets are remarkably efficient at adjusting correctly to new information. This is showing that the markets must be efficient due to the fact that professional investors do not on the whole beat the market, and therefore all available information must be taken into account by the market prices and thus there is no gain to be had by any investors by using past prices, or publicly or privately readily available information. Arguments against the Efficient Market Hypothesis Malkiel (2003: 60) observes that by the beginning of the twenty first century â€Å"the intellectual dominance of the efficient market hypothesis had become far less universal† and academics were starting to question the premise and were not accepting it as they had done previously. Shiller (2003 ; 83) states that, â€Å"[contained in the EMH is] the idea that speculative asset prices such as stock prices always incorporate the best information about fundamental values and that prices change only because of good, sensible information.† However he then moves on to discuss how not all information is sensible and not all actors are rational, this would conflict with the efficient market hypothesis which relies on information having a large impact on the prices of stock. As well as this several recent reports have shown a range of empirical evidence which suggests that stock returns can actually possess components of a predictable nature, therefore also rejecting parts of the efficient market hypothesis which profess that looking at past trends do not allow for excess gains when investing on the stocks against the market. Keim and Stambaugh (1986) state that using forecasts based on a number of factors can find statistically significant predictability in a range of different stock prices. Lo and MacKinlay (1988) reject the random walk hypothesis, which is so often considered with the efficient market hypothesis theory, and show that it is not at all consistent with the stochastic nature of weekly returns. Empirical evidence of return behaviour which has been anomalous in the form of variables such as price to earnings ratio (Fama and French, 1992) has defied any kind of usual rational explanation and has resulted in a great number of researchers cons idering their views and opinions of market efficiency. Evaluation and Implications for Investors In conclusion, it is clear to see that market prices are not always predictable and that the markets have made large errors at certain points in time, for example at the recent dotcom internet bubble. Here it was obviously possible to exploit the market inefficiency to make money for investors. In the short run it may be possible to exploit these sporadic inefficiencies, but in the long term true value will always come to the fore. As long as these markets do exist, due to it being reliant on the judgement of investors, there will occasionally be errors made and some participants In the market are likely to behave in a less than rational manner, as is inherent in human nature. As well as this all information will not necessarily be sensible and investors are not likely to necessarily use it rationally. Thus irregular pricing or predictable patterns on stocks can appear and be exploited from time to time. In terms of the implications for investors in terms of the efficient market hypothesis, it is plain to see that all markets cannot be one hundred percent efficient all of the time or there would not be an incentive for people who are professionals in the field to discover different facets of information that is often quickly reflected by market prices (Grossman and Stiglitz, 1980). However, things such as the 1999 dot com bubble are exceptions rather than the rule to providing investors with extraordinary returns on their investments to exploit market inefficiencies. Therefore one could assume that the markets are efficient more often than not, and Fama (1970) is on the whole correct. This could lead to the conclusion in agreeing with Ellis (1998) and the overall idea that active equity management is indeed a ‘loser’s game’. Malkiel (2005) further advises on Ellis’ claim and professes that indexing is likely to produce higher rates of return than active por tfolio management. This is becoming more and more likely to impact investors as markets become more and more efficient, as Toth and Kertesz (2006) show in their examination of an increase in efficiency of the New York stock exchange. Therefore investors are required to question if it is indeed possible or feasible to exploit market inefficiencies using strategies the efficient market hypothesis calls into question. Bibliography Dimson, E. and Mussavian, M. (1998). ‘A Brief History of Market Efficiency’. European Financial Management. 4(1): 91-103. Ellis, C. (1998). Winning the Loser’s Game, McGraw-Hill: New York. Fama. E.G, (1970). ‘Efficient Capital Markets: A Review of Theory and Empirical Work’. The Journal of Finance. 25(2): 383-417 Fama, E. and French, K. (1988) ‘Dividend yields and expected stock returns’. Journal of Financial Economics.(22): 3-25. Fama, E. and French, K. (1992). ‘Common risk factors in the returns on stocks and bonds’. Journal of Financial Economics. (33): 3-56. Grossman, S. and J, Stiglitz. (1980). ‘On the Impossibility of Informationally Efficient Markets.’ American Economic Review. 70(3). 393-408. Keim and Stambaugh (1986). ‘Predicting returns In the Stock and Bond Markets’. Journal of Financial Economics. 357-290. Lo and MacKinlay. (1988) ‘Stock Market prices do not follow random walks : Evidence from a simple specification test’. Review of Financial Studies. (1): 41-66. Malkiel, B. (2003). ‘The Efficient Market Hypothesis and Its Critics Authors’. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 17(1): 59-82 Malkiel, B. (2005). ‘Reflections on the Efficient Market Hypothesis: 30 Years Later’. The Financial Review (40):1-9 Shiller, R. (2003). ‘From Efficient Markets Theory to Behavioral Finance’. Journal of Economic Perspectives. 17(1) : 83-104. Toth, B. and Kertesz, J. (2006). ‘Increasing market efficiency: Evolution of cross-correlations of stock returns’. Physica 360(2): 505–515.